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Agriculture is central to the lives of the people of Zanzibar. It shapes the landscape, feeds the people, creates employment and incomes, provides raw materials for agro-based industries, and is an important earner of foreign exchange. It is the most important sector of the economy in terms of employment and income generation, where two-thirds of the population are employed, and an estimated 40% of the workforce is dependent on it for some part of their livelihood. The contribution to GDP has been estimated at 25-27%, but is considered an underestimation since much of agricultural and related activity is unrecorded. This is certainly the case in the utilization of most locally consumed produce, where it is seldom traded in a formal sector. However, the decrease in agriculture’s share of GDP from 32% in the 1980s is attributed to increased employment in service and industry sectors, and the relatively slower productivity growth in agriculture. Despite these changes, the sector continues to play a significant role in reducing food deficits, malnutrition, and food import dependency. The continued importance of agricultural growth is highlighted in the Zanzibar Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty (ZSGRP), whereby the current and future strategy is explicitly aimed to ensure food security and safety nets for the poor, improving household incomes, and to form a sustainable management of natural resources.
Agriculture has been an important economic activity in Zanzibar since time immemorial. Historical records suggest that extensive cultivation in Zanzibar dates back to the 12th century where Shirazi Persians earlier, who visited Zanzibar in the 10th century, introduced Persian roses and used to distill rose water to meet European demand. Persians also introduced the use of irrigation systems and terracing in the cultivation of rice, spices, fruits, and vegetables. A number of mariners’ chronicles report the flourishing of agriculture with an abundance of food products to supply passing ships during stopovers for trade or watering. One of the most detailed descriptions of cultivation practices followed in Zanzibar and its produce is by the British Resident, William H. Ingrams, in his book Zanzibar – Its History and Its People, where he describes the 30 types of coconuts and multitudes of other tropical items grown on the islands. The Wamakaribis, who are a Bantu group from the East African interior, were noted as skilled cultivators who introduced much of the present-day practice of agriculture in Zanzibar. They lived on the high ground and before the building of roads, rope was the only means of reaching their villages from the lowland areas. Some of the oldest residents of the villages only descended yearly in their youth to serve as porters to the coast. In the pre-period following the revolution in Zanzibar, there were several attempts to increase agricultural output with modern techniques and capital incentives. The initial results were encouraging, but the general trend of decline in the agricultural sector that continues to contemporary times was marked even in the 1st Development Plan (1964/65 – 1969/70) with the failure to meet self-imposed objectives due to physical, social, and economic problems. The National Economic Plan (1970/71 – 1973/74) saw the importance of agricultural modernization as a remedy to the rapid population growth, and government encouragement was directed toward greater exports of the traditional core products. High-yielding hybrid varieties of maize and rice were introduced, and attempts were made to increase cocoa production. The Green Revolution period thus saw the start of intensive capital investment, the nation’s first taste of development incentives, and the use of traditional and nontraditional export commodities.
The origins of agriculture in Zanzibar are uncertain, but it is likely that agriculture began over 1000 years ago with the arrival of the first Swahili speaking people and their Iron Age culture. Archaeological survey work on Unguja has revealed a number of sites with evidence of extensive farming, dating back to at least the fourteenth century. Increases in population densities in the late second millennium led to the dispersion of many large settlements and the occupation of areas which were previously thought to be unsuitable for agriculture. This is evident in the number of houses and terraces found at various sites in Pemba. It is thought that this period was a time of agricultural intensification and that communities sought to develop new land for cultivation. The Portuguese reported extensive cultivation of rice, corn and fruit trees in the sixteenth century. Not long after their departure, extensive cultivation of cloves began, which has been the island’s most famous crop and a significant part of Zanzibar’s agriculture up to the present day. After the signing of a Clove Marketing Agreement in 1942 between the Zanzibar Clove Growers Association and the colonial government, a previous period of decline in clove cultivation was reversed. This led to the renovation of old clove trees, expansion in clove holdings and increases in clove prices. The expansion was especially great in Pemba, which during the 1950s tripled its production and rose to become the world’s leading clove producer at that time. This provided considerable foreign exchange and governmental revenue, and the period from the early 1960s to the early 1970s has been described as the golden age of Zanzibar’s clove economy. Although there had been government efforts to diversify agriculture away from complete dependence on clove export, this was seriously undermined by the clove price crash of 1973. At this time, the world price of cloves was slashed, which had a detrimental effect on Zanzibar’s economy. Clove farmers abandoned their orchards and either migrated to urban areas or engaged in food crop cultivation to meet their subsistence requirements. Today the clove price is still a critical issue to Zanzibar’s clove growers, who struggle to maintain a reliable income from clove production.
The most crucial theme in this book is to stress the importance of agriculture in Zanzibar. The farming sector is of particular importance to Zanzibar. This is evident in that agriculture is practiced in Zanzibar by almost 70% of the rural people. Of this number, 80% are engaged in food crop production. This does not involve the percentage of the land used in agriculture and the abundance of botanical and scientific agricultural research and trials that are spearheaded by countless NGOs and INGOs into the industry in Zanzibar. The government sustains agriculture by injecting 40% of its recurrent budget into this sector and agriculture also accounts for 75% of Zanzibar’s total exports. All these statistics just go to show how the economy of Zanzibar is heavily dependent on agriculture and agricultural products for its people’s survival. Agriculture is so heavily depended upon in Zanzibar because of the slow growth of industry and the still minimal tourism industry. It is estimated that about only 80,000 people visit Zanzibar’s shores every year. This reason also explains why there are not too many job opportunities available outside the industry of agriculture. Because of this, more and more people are immigrating in from rural areas of Zanzibar into the more urbanized areas of Zanzibar Town and Ng’ambo. This has resulted in an increasingly high population density and the national food requirements are not being met. Agricultural produce is either exported or sold to tourist hotels in return for foreign investment. Because of these circumstances mentioned, it is more likely that agriculture will continue to remain the backbone of Zanzibar’s economy for years to come. This is not excluding the chances that Zanzibar becomes an independent state to increase job opportunities and facilitate population emigration within the Isles.
The major crops that grow in Zanzibar represent the cultural, economic, and social identity of the country. The crops play a major role in both the past and the present of Zanzibar and are a large movement towards the development of the country. Zanzibar’s major crops can be divided into two groups. In 2000, the Zanzibar government identified 13 ‘core’ crops, these being the main staple foods of the island. The second group is the ‘estate’ crops, i.e. those grown to be sold, which are largely the two spices infused in Zanzibar’s history, cloves and nutmeg. Of the 13 ‘core’ crops, the top 4 major crops with the most significance are rice, coconut, cassava, and sweet potato. These crops were introduced by the Arab traders since the beginning of the civilization of Swahili coast and have been adapted into a major food source up until this day.
The clove tree begins to flower after about four years. The tree on which the cloves grow is an evergreen that grows to a height ranging from 8 to 12 metres. Clove trees are most productive and are at their prime between the 15th to 20th years of its life. Clove trees are scattered plants in clove plantations, for a single clove tree cannot sustain shade for it grows best in partial shade offered by larger trees such as those of the mangrove, breadfruit or the jackfruit. After the clove flower has matured it takes the shape of a pink to red spike and is picked carefully by hand. This is due to the fact that as a clove tree is harvested throughout the year, it produces both flowers which are about to bloom, and other immature ones. Hand picking enables clove planters to testify and distribute their yield for the best quality. The picked cloves are then sun-dried for 4-5 days, and are spread out on a mat in the evening and stored inside during the night. This process is repeated until the smell and the rattle of the seed within the clove indicates that the clove is ready to be stored in bags in a well-ventilated space. Clove trees have been claimed to have a productive peak of about 70 years in ideal conditions. Often it is desired to interplant the clove tree with other crops such as vegetables (garlic, onions).
Cloves are one of Zanzibar’s main cash crops. The idea of planting cloves was introduced in Zanzibar by the Omani sultans during the 18th century. By planting cloves, it enabled the sultans to increase their control and direct involvement in the local economy, effectively creating a greater degree of coercive power. It is claimed that locally, the idea of planting cloves is attributed to an abundant tale or a local fable which illustrates a man passing near a grave and being asked by the occupant of the grave if he could provide some fitting occupation for the barren hill slope in which the grave was dug. The man planted a clove and years later returned to show that the clove had grown into a tree and its produce of cloves offered him a local source of wealth.
Seaweed farming in Zanzibar is fairly recent compared to the other crops. It stands out as a unique income generating activity because its market is international compared to the other crops, and it is entirely bought under contract by processing companies in Kenya. This reduces the risks usually associated with agricultural activities. The carrageenan business has expanded greatly over the years and has managed to create direct and indirect employment for over 1500 Zanzibaris. This income generating activity is not weather dependent, taking 45 days to mature regardless of weather and fetches substantial rewards. The potential for seaweed farming in Zanzibar is great because of the suitable environment and the increasing international demand. Currently it has attained a rather low priority although the worse off farmers are turning to seaweed farming, most with no capital. With sufficient extension services and credit schemes, seaweed farming can improve the living standards of farmers and contribute to the GDP of Zanzibar. However, in November 2017, a potential issue arose when the government of Zanzibar banned seaweed farming from November to May of each year in order to protect the tourism industry, which was facing issues with washed up seaweed on the beaches. This greatly affects many seaweed farmers and the economy; however a method to implement the ban has not yet been decided.
The rice crop is the main food crop for Zanzibar. It is cultivated in nearly every area, the exceptions being coral rag and sand at elevations over 100m. Production of paddy declined from 11.38m tons in 1987-88 to 6.6m tons in 1992-93 though increased considerably during the 90s. Zanzibar has been producing an average of 32,000 tons of paddy rice annually. Most rice is consumed at home though some is sold on the market. There is little rice trade between Zanzibar and the Mainland. The rice sector employs a substantial number of Zanzibar workers and contributes to food security for farm families. Despite the decline in production during the late 80s and early 90s, rice is a staple for small scale farmers in almost all areas of Zanzibar. The focus now is on increasing rice production to levels where Zanzibar can be self-sufficient and possibly export rice to Pemba and the Mainland. This will involve improving production efficiency and opening regional markets for Zanzibar’s rice. A main constraint to increasing production is the limited technology transfer from research stations to farmers plus rice diseases, funding, and poor post-harvest technology. Rice can be grown in a variety of ecological and hydrological settings. High potential (silt) rice areas are along the inshore coastal band and valley bottoms in central western Zanzibar. Medium potential (swamp) rice is found in valley bottoms and terraces of up to 400m whilst low potential (upland) rice occurs in valleys and level terrain below 400m. There are over 1000 rice farmers growing on about 2000 hectares (mainly high and medium potential rice).
There are many different kinds of dishes that can be cooked with coconut and its byproducts. Fish and pork are often cooked in coconut milk, and the mixture is also a staple in curry dishes. On occasion, rice can be cooked with a small bit of coconut milk to give it a different flavor and a bit more calories than usual. Coconut is often used as a flavoring in different kinds of sweets. Coming up with new ways to cook with coconut would be an interesting and tasty endeavor.
Coconut is one of the most useful trees in the world. Every part of the tree is useful in some way. The leaves are used to make baskets, fans, hats, mats, bags, thatch for roofs, and hand brooms. Midribs of the leaves are used to make furniture. The timber is used to make huts. The nut is used for food and to make oil that is used in cooking and in manufactured food products. The oil is also used in soap-making and in cosmetics. Coconut is a very wholesome food that is high in fat. The nut is also used to make a drink. The white flesh of the nut can be dried and processed into copra, which is the dried “meat” or kernel of the nut. Copra is the basis of several coconut-based products, with the most well-known being coconut oil.
Zanzibar is the largest grower and exporter of coconuts in Africa. Coconut palm is grown in abundance all over the islands. It plays a significant role in the islands’ economy, as this crop is a source of food, fuel, thatch, and building materials. The coconut palm is called “the tree of life” because it is used in so many ways and satisfies so many of the islanders’ needs.
In the United Republic of Tanzania and particularly on Zanzibar, the notion of crop is associated more with food crops. Apart from its reputation in the production of food crops, the isles have in the recent past diversified their agriculture by venturing into the production of other commercial crops. The leading crop in this category is cloves grown in Zanzibar and coconut on the mainland. The islands have also been involved in the production of essential oils. Vanilla is grown in the shade of trees, whereas cinnamon is derived from the inner bark of a tree. The first efforts to grow vanilla in Zanzibar and Tanzania mainland were in the late 1950s and early 1960s. It was realized that the crop could fetch a good return for the small-scale farmers who had limited area for growing it. Commercial cultivation of vanilla began in the early 1980s and has flourished ever since. It is grown mainly in Bukoba, Kagera, Zanzibar, and Kilimanjaro. Though vanilla is grown in other areas, Zanzibar’s potential to produce organic vanilla because of conducive organic farming status and generally good agricultural practices has placed it in a vital position. Cinnamon is believed to have been introduced into Zanzibar by the Portuguese who thought that Zanzibar had a climate and suitable soils. The real potential of growing cinnamon in Zanzibar was realized in the year 1972, and it was in the 1980s that FAO established a project aimed at rehabilitating the once prosperous industry. Current production now meets global demand for cinnamon, and the quality of the product is one of the finest in the global market.
Vanilla is a vine crop that belongs to the family Orchidaceae and is endemic to Central America. The vine consists of a wide, thin leaf and can grow to over 35m long if given suitable support. The fruit, originally discovered by Totonoc Indians, consists of 3 main parts: the thin, membranous outer layer, the green, fleshy undetermined length fruit, and the ripe fruit. Vanilla is grown in Zanzibar under the shade of fruit trees. This provides protection from the direct sunlight that would scorch the delicate vanilla pods. This intercropping method allows for maximum land use and crop productivity. Although the vanilla flower is a hermaphrodite, in that it possesses both male and female reproductive structures, it is self-incompatible and the flower must be pollinated by hand within 12 hours of blossoming or the flower will wilt and the pod will not grow. This labor-intensive process is a limiting factor to vanilla production. A successful harvest can see the crop yield up to 80 kg per hectare. However, the long 18-month maturation period and fluctuating market prices often discourage the small-scale farmer. Vanilla is a tropical crop and the vine will only grow in a narrow band of 18-23 degrees from the equator where the climate is both hot and wet. This factor contributes to the high market price of vanilla as the crop can only be grown in a select few places around the world.
Cinnamon is a very ancient and valuable spice which has been traded on the world market for over 7000 years, highly prized for its medicinal qualities as well as its culinary uses. The name cinnamon comes from the Arabic, amomon, a word derived from amomon, meaning unbreakable, describing the nature of cinnamon wood. Cinnamon held such a high regard in the ancient world that it was considered a gift fit for monarchs and even for a god; a fine inscription records the gift of cinnamon and cassia to the temple to Apollo at Miletus. The story goes that during Nero’s funeral, his grieving widow, Poppaea, burnt a year’s supply of cinnamon. This brilliant act demonstrated the depth of her loss as well as making clear just how wealthy she was to be able to afford burning such a valuable item. On his return from exile, the aristocratic Roman, Lucius Calpurnius Piso, being a lover of luxury, made a botanical exploration of Arabia, not for the good of the Roman Empire but to satisfy his personal craving for cinnamon. This liking was widespread throughout the Roman world which made many attempts to bypass the dangerous sea route to Ceylon (the source of cinnamon) and gain access to the spice by other means. This resulted in many mythical encounters including the tale of Alexander the Great, who in 330 BC, met a band of mountain-dwelling men who claimed that cinnamon trees grew in their country but the source was protected by fierce, man-eating birds who used the cinnamon sticks to build their nests. This strong desire for cinnamon probably stems from the fact that Europeans did not actually know the origin of the spice until the late 15th and early 16th century. Up until that time, there was a flourishing trade through the Middle East to North Africa, bringing Indian and Chinese spices overland to the Near East and the Mediterranean. However, with the Turkish capture of Constantinople in 1453, the land routes to the East became precarious and costly and as a result, a number of European nations sent sea expeditions to find a sea route to the East. It was the Portuguese Admiral Alfonso d’Albuquerque who landed in Ceylon in 1517 and finally solved the mystery of the origin of cinnamon to the Western world. This marked the beginning of the end for the old overland route as the sea route was easier and thus d’Albuquerque’s countrymen made an unsuccessful attempt to take over the cinnamon trade by planting the tree in their own colony of Ceylon. This failed attempt still did not deter the other cinnamon-hungry nations and thus began 400 years of European rivalry centring around the control of cinnamon and the consequent wars and political dislocation, especially in Ceylon.
Cardamom is an herbaceous perennial belonging to the family Zingiberaceae. The plant grows wild in the forests of South India and in the Western Ghats. It can be cultivated in a variety of tropical habitats. Altitude and the amount of rainfall are critical factors in determining the yield and quality of the crop. It can be grown at elevations varying from sea level up to 1500 metres above mean sea level (m.a.m.s.l). Cardamom is an understory crop and it requires a well-distributed annual precipitation ranging from 1500-2500 mm. It can grow both as a pure crop and as a mixed crop in coconut and rubber plantations. In natural forests, it grows as an associate of the main trees. It is grown extensively in the high ranges of Kerala and also in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and the North Eastern States. Cold and dry wind is injurious to this crop and it cannot withstand severe frost. A well-distributed rain and cool shade are essential for it. In the event of failure of normal rains, irrigation may be resorted to only to ensure the setting and growth of capsules. High winds uproot the plants and cause heavy damage to the crop. A light wind or mild breeze is beneficial. The plant flourishes well in virgin soil under tropical evergreen conditions, but it can also be grown in cleared forests. High humidity (relative humidity 75-85%) and a moderate temperature (15°-30°C) are best suited for its cultivation. A hot and humid climatic condition is responsible for many diseases and insect pests. It can grow in all types of soil but loamy soil rich in humus with slight acidity (pH 5.5-7.5) is considered to be ideal for cultivation. Being a root crop, the plant thrives better in shades with good soil moisture. The crop takes a year for germination and will start yielding from the third year. Full-scale harvesting can be done from the fifth year of planting.
Pepper is a very common crop in Zanzibar and is grown spaciously. Although its growing method is similar to both cardamom and cloves, two crops which are often intercropped with pepper, pepper is not suitable for sole cropping as it requires some shade to grow. Soils under coconuts which have dried coconut husks or wood make ideal germination beds, as the mild heat generated during decomposition encourages the initial root development required when planting out seedlings. Care has to be taken in site selection as mature pepper vines require a vertical support which is often planted in a y-shape and buried 60-90cm in the ground. Stump or rooted cuttings which are purchased from the cultivars association are planted out in the beginning of the long rains. Mounds are initially made around the base of young plants to avoid water logging around the stem. Pepper is a long term crop and its vines require careful maintenance to ensure that they gain access to vertical support. Weapons made from the base of palm leaves are often used to swing from one side a tree or from one side of a planting pole to another, to create a passage for the vine. At around 6 months of age pepper requires minimum weeding periods of 3-4 months, this combined with the requirement of shade makes it ideal for intercropping. A very minimal amount of compost is spread around the base of the plant at the beginning of the short rains. Prior to harvest pepper requires a short dry period of around 2-4 weeks which follows the cutting of the end of the vines and the removal of some branches. A heavy pruning will encourage the plant to bare more berries in the following year. The pepper berries are picked as they ripen, as red berries have the best taste and are often used for planting out new pepper vines. A fermentation process of around a week, involving the wrapping of the berries in bags or in leaves, is used for black pepper, which is the most commonly used type of pepper in Zanzibar.
Soil erosion is increased during heavy rain periods, which reduce soil fertility and can increase underground water acidity. Soil and water logging also reduce the potential productive growth and yield of many crops. Climate change is also thought to increase the frequency of extreme weather conditions such as tropical storms, which cause physical damage to crops and can lead to crop failure if weather conditions persist. An example of a recent crop disease outbreak that has been associated with climate change is the root disease of cassava (Cassava Mosaic Disease East Africa), which is now a major constraint to cassava production in Zanzibar. High temperature and low water movement in the soil also increase the risk of many plant diseases.
Zanzibar’s climate can be described as tropical and is strongly influenced by the monsoon. The island is hot and humid all year round with an average annual temperature of about 30°C. There are two distinct seasons in Zanzibar, the rains (masika) which occur during the months of April to May and a shorter period of rain in November. The long dry spells generally stretch from June to October and from December to March. Dhow et al (2005) states that due to climate change, drying winds between the seasons now cause soil moisture stress and reduced crop yields.
Chemical pesticides are widely used in Zanzibar to protect crops from pest damage, although small-scale farmers often have difficulty in accessing pesticides at an affordable price. Furthermore, there are many problems associated with pesticide use including health risks arising from improper use and contamination of produce, environmental damage, the emergence of pesticide-resistant pest species, and the death of beneficial non-target organisms. Organic farming methods are thus an appealing alternative; however, there is currently limited resources and investment into researching and promoting the use of these methods for crop pest and disease management.
There are many methods small-scale farmers can employ to manage crop pests and diseases. Traditional farming techniques involved intercropping, crop rotation, and the use of pest-resistant crop varieties. Although these methods are often effective, the knowledge of how and when to best employ them is being lost as modern farming techniques are adopted, and often there is limited availability of pest-resistant crop varieties.
Crop pests and diseases on Zanzibar are largely affected by the islands’ climate, with temperature and rainfall playing important roles in determining the distribution and abundance of various pest species. A survey carried out in 2007 examining the types of crop pests and diseases currently found on the islands revealed that 80% of respondents considered that incidences of pests and diseases had increased in recent years. This was attributed to changes in growing practices, increased trade and transport of crops and their associated pests, and changes in the climate. With widespread and continual damage caused by pests and diseases, strategies to manage and control these problems are of great importance to the agricultural sector.
Crops grown on the Zanzibar mainland and in Pemba are subject to a wide array of crop pests and diseases that lower crop yield and increase production costs. These losses are generally high, frequently estimated at between 40-60% of total agricultural production. Pests are especially damaging to small-scale farmers, who often lack the resources to effectively combat them. Increases in the local or international price of staple food crops due to loss of production can also greatly impact food security on the islands, usually resulting in increased importation of staple foods, which in turn has negative effects on the domestic economy.
