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Zanzibar has a wide array of bird species without a doubt. Given its designation, its proximity to Dar es Salaam and its obvious attraction to tourists, it has always been surprising that there is no up to date guide to its bird riches. When I began to study the birds of Zanzibar in 1996, I found that there was no list of species nor any account of the status of even the more obvious birds. Without any literature to turn to, the only way to find out about the birds was to ask people like the Wildlife Department staff, local residents, taxi drivers and tour guides. The classic systematic check list was compiled over five years during a PhD study in Oxford which made use of the Evans-Zimmermann collection which is housed at the University of Turku. Data on breeding was collected by visiting likely habitats and recording evidence of breeding. Maps for each species in this dissertation show only confirmed breeding records and thus a good example is probably the Green Barbet, which I have heard in numerous localities throughout the west of the island, but which I have never actually found at a nest hole. The best way of seeing most species is outlined in the species accounts, mainly based on my own observations. This usually involves a visit to the extensive forests in the east of the island, and its good quality deciduous woodland; whereas most of the dense human population and the tourist resorts are on the north and east coasts, and the birds are generally hard to find in these areas. A large number of new records and many of the distribution maps are based on a two-year bird survey, supported by the Government of Zanzibar and Fauna and Flora International between 2006 and 2008. Although there are still only a mere handful of tourists who come to Zanzibar primarily for bird-watching, the good resident bird fauna, the large number of migrants (which are always harder to see than in the northern parts of the country) and the good chance of finding some East African coast endemics (such as the Amani Sunbird, and the Uluguru, Usambara and Banded Greenbuls) make it an attractive destination for the good birder.
Zanzibar’s bird population is relatively species-poor with about 200 species being recorded in total. Because of its proximity to the continent, most of the birds found on the islands are of Afrotropical origin. Only 3 of the species that have been recorded on the islands are true endemics, these are the Zanzibar red bishop Euplectes nigroventris, the Zanzibar sunicot Ploceus metaurus, and the recently described Zanzibar nightjar Caprimulgus inornatus. Some authorities, however, now class the nightjar and sunicot as races of the more widespread and similar-looking plain nightjar and forest weaver.
Zanzibar is situated 25-50km off the Indian Ocean coastline of East Africa and consists of two main islands, Unguja and Pemba, and about 50 smaller islets. It is a part of Tanzania, and is separated from the Tanzanian coast by a 30km wide channel. The island is located between 6-6.5° south of the equator and has an area of about 2,467km2.
Zanzibar is not renowned for its birdlife, though not many tropical islands can offer such a variety of habitats in such a small area. Only about 20 years ago did birdwatching start to become popular, and there are still many areas of the islands which have never been ornithologically surveyed. Information is slowly building up and more people are becoming interested in birds. Records of birds in Zanzibar have been made for over 100 years and many things have changed. Forest which covered almost all of Zanzibar until 150 years ago has been largely cleared and the only large remaining tracts are the Jozani area in Zanzibar Central/South National Park, Ngezi Forest on Pemba and a couple of smaller forests. The island group is situated just off the coast of Eastern Africa, five degrees south of the Equator. It consists of two main islands, Zanzibar (or Unguja) and Pemba, and about 50 smaller ones. The climate is warm and humid, the temperature varying over the year from 25-30°C. Rainfall is more variable than on the mainland with the long rains usually occurring from March to May and the short rains in November. With such a wide range of habitats, it is surprising that there are only 423 species of birds recorded so far (E.A.R.O 1992). Compare this to the 1000 or more species in Kenya which is 35 times the size. Zanzibar boasts 22 species which are endemic or near-endemic to the Zanzibar/Tanzania coastal forests (Stattersfield et al 1998), and another 2 species endemic to the Zanzibar archipelago. However, at least eight of these endemic/near-endemic species are thought to no longer breed on Zanzibar and populations are declining due to habitat loss and degradation. Two species, the Pemba Scops Owl and the Pemba White-Eye are only found on Pemba Island.
The coast of Zanzibar is home to a number of interesting and uncommon species. Among the most numerous of waders is the White-fronted Plover Charadius marginatus. This dainty little bird is quite common and is usually found in pairs scurrying busily along the edge of the waves or a little higher up on sandy beaches in search of small crustaceans and other macro invertebrates. Its presence is usually given away by its sharp ringing “did-he-do-it” call. It is an attractive little bird with a distinctive black underbelly and a white fore crown, and is easy to watch and photograph. The Greater Frigatebird Fregate ariel is another species of great interest. It is a large and impressive bird but is nowhere near as conspicuously abundant as its smaller relative the Lesser Frigatebird Fregate minor. Both species are regularly seen flying high over the coast or perched in large dead trees, particularly on small offshore islets. They are relatively recent colonisers to Zanzibar but seem to be increasing in numbers. Males of the Greater Frigatebird are quite unmistakable. They have a distinctive bright red gular sac which they inflate during display to advertise their eligibility as mates.
Small but delightful, the much-loved Zanzibar white-eye (Zosterops vaughani) is another species with a restricted range and is currently the focus of targeted conservation action. Mixed flocks of white-eyes foraging in flowering canopy trees are a feature of the forest edge and forest remnants in many locations on the island; hear them and you know that you are in a healthy forest. However, such forest is becoming increasingly scarce due to logging, clearance for agriculture and urban expansion.
Despite its political significance as the national emblem, the Zanzibar olive pigeon (Columba allochlora) has received little attention in the literature. This diminutive pigeon plays a vital role in seed dispersal in the dry forests and may be more numerous than current anecdotal evidence suggests. A project to assess number and distribution of pigeons in Unguja Mjini’s Forest in capital area is planned to commence later this year, involving the training of local field researchers.
The spectacular Fischer’s Turaco (Tauraco fischeri), a near endemic (also occurring in Nguru and Udzungwa), and the Zanzibar bulbul (Hypsipetes unmaskesius) are both confined to the moist evergreen forests of the very wet south and southwest of the island. However, large areas of this habitat have been cleared and the turaco in particular is thought to have suffered a decline.
Zanzibar’s forests support a very special avian community. Some nine range-restricted species occur, including the rare and possibly endangered Zanzibar Red Bishop (Euplectes nigroventris) and the near threatened Zanzibar sunbird (Nectarinia pembae). The latter is confined to the south of the East African island and appears to be dependent on the dry evergreen thickets known as Kivulini or bushland fringing cultivation on the central plateau for its survival.
The African spoonbill is another bird which has become scarce on Zanzibar although it can still be seen. It is a small white bird which is easily identifiable by its large spoon-shaped bill and its habit of feeding at the edges of wetlands. The bird is a resident in East Africa and can be found in other parts of Tanzania and it is mainly loss of habitat that it has ceased to thrive in Zanzibar. This species can usually be found in pairs or small groups and has been noted to breed in some areas in the past. Measures to promote the protection of remaining wetlands on Zanzibar may help to bring this bird back to more healthy numbers on Zanzibar.
The Pink-backed pelican is a rare migrant to Zanzibar and can be seen at any large wetland area. This bird can in fact be found all over Africa, however loss of habitat and hunting led the bird to disappear from South Africa in the nineteen sixties. Its current poor conservation status and vast range make it an important species in areas where it is still found like Zanzibar. This species is much like the more common white pelican in its habits and look, but is smaller, stockier and has a distinguishable pink bar on its back during breeding season. Measures have been taken to promote the Flamingo Forests as a habitat for these birds and although there is no data to show the effect, it is known that the recent construction of a large reservoir above the Chwaka bay has led to an increase in birds of this species.
The main wetland areas on the Zanzibar archipelago are found in the larger islands of Unguja and Pemba. These wetlands come in a variety of locations from coastal salt marshes to large reservoirs and small freshwater marshes, ponds and even rice fields. All of these areas serve as home to several species of birds and many are even shared with some common resident and migratory species of other habitats. Due to the variety of different wetland landscapes created by human habitation and natural formations, this section will assess a rough classification method of coastal and inland and detail the bird species associated with each.
In general, these threats are not unique to birds and almost all of the bird species on the islands are also classified as global or national priority species for biodiversity conservation. This means that with effective habitat conservation and restoration, the actions taken to protect bird populations will also contribute to the conservation of a large proportion of the biodiversity on the islands.
Climate change is predicted to have various effects around the world and in many areas these changes are still poorly understood. For the East Africa region, generally these changes will lead to warmer temperatures and changes in the patterns and frequencies of rainfall. This could lead to further habitat loss and degradation, especially in montane areas where some species may have limited options for altitudinal movements. For instance, if climate change results in a decrease in rainfall in the East Usambara Mountains, this could lead to the drying of forest areas. In contrast, the effect on the Pemba and Zanzibar islands will likely be too much rainfall in a short period during the wet seasons and increasingly longer dry seasons. This erratic pattern will lead to degradation of lowland forest and savanna areas on the islands. Overall, changes in habitat conditions due to climate change will result in additional stress on bird populations.
Trade of live birds has been happening for several years primarily for human consumption and as pets. Though most of this trade takes place within the country to feed local demand, there has been a history of exporting birds from the East Africa region including Pemba and Zanzibar to other areas. This is particularly true for Zanzibar Red Bishop. Capturing birds from the wild can have harmful effects on bird populations when it is above sustainable levels. This trade is painfully obvious at the many bird markets held throughout the region and is considered a significant threat to many bird species.
If plants or forests are not healthy, then birds which depend on these habitats are also vulnerable to similar declines in health. Logging, agriculture, and urbanization all result in loss and degradation of habitats. Other threats such as invasive species, fire, and over-exploitation of natural resources also result in similar unhealthy habitats.
Habitat loss can take many forms such as deforestation, agricultural conversion, urbanization, draining of wetlands and despoliation of the marine environment. It is a chronic phenomenon, as formerly considered pristine areas are now under threat, and complex, as the processes involved interact in combination. Globally, deforestation is the single greatest cause of species extinction. There has been an increasing rate of deforestation since the 19th century with the recent advent of large-scale agriculture, industrial development, and an ever-increasing human population. This has occurred mostly in tropical and sub-tropical regions, with little forest in temperate areas considered to be of the natural primary type. Currently, tropical forests are being cleared at a rate of 8 million hectares a year and continued rates will see these forests reduced by half within the next 37 years. The consequences of this are grave for the birdlife of forested areas; there are 4039 bird species in tropical and sub-tropical countries, all of which depend on the forest to a lesser or greater extent.
Habitat loss by humanity is the greatest threat to the existence of organisms in the world. Bird habitats have been destroyed or degraded for centuries, though the great human population increase since the industrial revolution has led to a massive increase in the rate of habitat change. Most birds are closely tied to their habitats and thus are often unable to use the habitats of other bird species, with many being unable to survive outside their specific habitat requirements. As a result, the vast majority of threatened and endangered bird species are suffering habitat loss; it is an ongoing threat to around 85% of all bird species at different levels of severity.
Bird trapping in Southeast Asia during the 20th century caused a dramatic population decline in a number of species, although levels of exploitation and effects are not well documented. Trapping of European songbirds is still a major problem, particularly for robins (Erithacus spp.), warblers (Sylvia spp.), and thrushes (Turdus spp.), with Italy being a particular hotspot as a high proportion of these birds migrate over the country. In Brehm’s era, bird catchers were sought after as suppliers of live songbirds to the ‘bird fancy’ that was popular among both rich and poor in Europe. It was this habit that had devastating effects on European bird populations, many of which have not yet recovered. In modern times, the development of new bird markets in Taiwan, Singapore, and other countries in the Far East, where birds are sought for aviculture, has caused concern among environmentalists and led to British bird conservationists carrying out surveys in these countries and campaigning for controls on the bird trade. However, rural poverty and the profitable nature of bird catching mean that traps are likely to continue indefinitely in some parts of the world.
Declines in biodiversity are the most threatening aspect of global climate change, likely to be the only threat which affects all sites. The nature of the threat is so specific to individual species and sites that it is impossible to generalize about the impacts. However, the Red Data Book noted that it is likely to be most serious for rare species and species with small ranges and those whose local climate is atypical of the region. Given that Zanzibar has a significant number of endemics and a large proportion of these are forest species, the potential for climate change impacts is very great. The single modelling study on African birds has suggested that over 300 bird species may be at risk from global climate change. This study calculated the relationship between the range and climate of 1214 African bird species and projected the impacts of climate change using GISS scenarios of climate change at a scale of 2.8 x 2.8 minutes. It concluded that one quarter of bird species would suffer reductions in range of over 50%. This would imperil a large proportion of coastal forest and associated endemics such as Zanzibar Red Bishop and Amani Sunbird whose remaining forest strongholds are likely to be important refuges from drier lowland climates. In the short term the project would undermine bird conservation efforts geared towards the creation of a network of SPAs and forest reserves given that the historical and predictive distribution data for such sites indicates that bird communities are significantly tied to particular climatic conditions. This work also has implications for the vulnerability of forest reserve network, a larger area of lowland within Udzungwa is likely to be at severe risk from encroachment by small scale farmers forced to move from drier areas unsuitable for agriculture. Given the scale of potential impacts it is essential that further predictions on specific species and sites are conducted.
Protected areas for bird conservation The Forestry and Beekeeping Division of the Zanzibar government is responsible for the management of forests on Zanzibar. The Department of Commercial Crops, Fruits and Forestry, Sokoine University of Agriculture (SUA), and the Tanzania Wildlife Research Institute initiated a project on Pemba in 1995 with the aim of establishing a network of forest reserves. The purpose of the reserves is to ensure the conservation of the remaining forests and the flora and fauna that they contain, while also maximizing the contribution of the forests to rural livelihoods through the sustainable production of wood, non-timber products and ecotourism attractions. The project has created a foundation for a forestry policy for Pemba that will seek to involve village communities in forest protection and the regulated use of forest resources. The existing network of forest reserves has already contributed to the protection of the endemic Pemba Scops Owl Otus pembaensis and the Pemba White-eye Zosterops maderaspatanus, both of which are threatened with extinction. In 1999 Menai forest (880 ha) was declared a Nature Reserve and earlier in 2006 the area was proposed as an extension to the nearby Ngezi Forest Reserve with the specific aim of creating a safe site for a threatened population of the Pemba Flying Fox Pteropus voeltzkowi. A combination of the Ngezi Forest reserve and the Pemba Flying Fox safe site is an Important Bird Area and it is hoped that a management plan can be initiated in the near future to ensure the long term conservation of all of the remaining forest on the Pemba.
Tanzania has long recognized the importance of conserving critical habitats for its rich and diverse birdlife, and this has been reflected in the development of a network of protected areas which now covers over 8% of the country’s land surface. This system includes 14 national parks, many forest and game reserves, a number of wetland sites, and the internationally famous Ngorongoro Conservation Area. Collectively, these areas hold the key to the long-term conservation of the vast majority of the country’s species, including almost all those which are threatened with global extinction. Additionally, roughly a quarter of the species found in Tanzania are localized in range, and these sites are often the only places where such birds can be seen by visitors. Forest reserves are possibly the most important category of site with regards to bird conservation and are intended to protect the renewable resources of the forest. However, many have been heavily impacted by illegal logging, agricultural encroachment, and hunting, with few still having effective protection and management. At present, the Tanzanian government is considering a more rational classification of these sites which will allow uses such as eco-tourism and silviculture while still maintaining biodiversity, and BirdLife is working closely with the government and other stakeholders to help produce management prescriptions and zonings at various sites which will benefit birds.
