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Wildlife on both Pemba and Unguja are often found in restricted areas due to the agriculture of cloves, coconuts, and other forms of cultivation. There are a variety of interesting creatures in the forests of Zanzibar including the Sykes monkey, bush babies, small (and rare) Zanzibar Suni antelope, a variety of mongoose, and the ever-elusive Zanzibar leopard. The World Wildlife Federation initiated the Conservation and Management of the Zanzibar Forest and Endangered Mammals Project in 1995 to protect the remaining natural forest ecosystems on Zanzibar and their populations of globally threatened species.
Welcome to the wonderful world of Zanzibar’s wildlife! The Zanzibar archipelago was once a vast landmass of East Africa and as a result, the animal life on the islands has come from a variety of areas and includes a number of interesting, unique, and sometimes comic creatures. The agricultural revolution and deforestation campaigns employed by various invaders have led to the demise of many indigenous species of Zanzibar. This includes the Zanzibar leopard, which is also thought to be extinct. However, Zanzibar still has a considerable amount of wildlife and efforts to conserve and protect the environment are helping certain populations to thrive.
The Department of Commercial Crops, Fruits and Forestry is responsible for wildlife conservation. The Department operates a wildlife management area system on the islands of Pemba and Unguja. There are two areas on Pemba, Ngezi and Vumawimbi, and Kiwulugusa on Unguja. These areas are under sustainable conservation in which forestry, guest houses, and hunting fees generate revenue for the local communities who own the land. This has helped to protect wildlife.
Zanzibar contains diverse, spectacular and unspoiled wildlife, both at sea and on land. The scenery and amazing sights of Zanzibar would not be complete without the astonishing animals that live in the forests, scrub, grasslands, and on the beaches. Unfortunately, sometimes the only signs of some animals are the tracks they leave behind, since many of them are shy and solitary. Consequently, just catching a glimpse of an animal can prove difficult, but patience is usually rewarded, and seeing one of these fascinating creatures in its natural environment is an unforgettable experience.
Zanzibar, the island that is also referred to as the ‘Spice Island’, has only a few native mammals left. These are the Zanzibar Red Colobus Monkey (Procolobus kirkii), the Zanzibar leopard (Panthera pardus adersi), and a very small population of the small insect-eating nocturnal Lushin’s giant rat (Cricetomys gambianus). In addition to these native mammals, there are a large number of domesticated animals such as goats, cattle, poultry, sheep, and donkeys. Even though these are not native to Zanzibar, they play a large role in the lives of those living in Zanzibar and should also be considered another element of the biodiversity of Zanzibar. The Zanzibar Red Colobus is endemic to South-West Zanzibar. It lives in a number of different types of habitat from coconut plantations to the coral rag forest. At present, nearly 80% of the Colobus’ habitat has been lost due to deforestation, impact from agriculture, and the use of trees for timber and firewood. This has led to a very small population of around 1500 individual Red Colobus monkeys left in the South-West region. Deforestation also results in the monkeys traveling into farmland in search of food, which often leads to the injury and killing of the monkeys by humans protecting their crops. Due to this, the Red Colobus is highly threatened and is listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List.
The animal species and ecosystem diversity have guaranteed Zanzibar a wealth of resources to provide to the human population. These resources are extremely important to society both locally and globally. Locally, the importance of the Zanzibar natural resources is seen in the direct dependence by the majority of the population. The importance of wildlife resources can be shown in a number of different agro-ecosystems, but specifically in Zanzibar, the most relevant is the shifting agriculture cycle. Wild lands are necessary for providing the proper environment for cultivation and to be used as fallow land. This, in turn, will ensure food security and sustainability of agriculture development for the population. Ecosystem services are a key area of importance for the local society, and it too has been directly linked to human welfare. The regulating services offered by ecosystems such as water purification, waste absorption, pollination, and control of disease and pests are vital for reducing health risks for the society and preventing loss of resources in a community where financial backing is often limited. The supply of natural resources is important for the local community and can be the difference between sustainability and just getting by. Whether the resources are used as building material, medicine, food, or fuel, they are an important factor in human survival and often are acquired from the forests, beaches, and marine environment in Zanzibar. The loss of these resources would mean a transition to artificial provision of these resources, often with an increased cost and diminished effectiveness. Finally, we cannot forget the cultural importance of biodiversity to the country. Zanzibar has a wealth of many unique species that have been a part of the country’s heritage for generations. The loss of these species is a loss of traditional culture for the Zanzibar population.
Upon visiting Jozani Forest, we spoke with a hunter who had served jail time last year for hunting red colobus monkeys. He claimed that he had not seen an Aders’ duiker before and believed it was not found in Jozani.
The Aders’ duiker (Cephalophus adersi) is shy and little known to the village Mwanihani residents. The duiker’s small size and shy nature probably means that it is relatively common but is rarely seen. We had to ask locals who had been hunting for bushmeat about the duiker, and even then they spoke timidly as if they were not sure of what they were saying. We did manage to snap a single photo of the duiker with a camera trap. To our knowledge, it is the first time this species has been recorded on the eastern side of Unguja.
The animals were obviously the most visible and popular wildlife in Jozani Forest, and we were able to learn much about many of the species during our observations. Species such as the red colobus (Piliocolobus kirkii) and sykes monkey (Cercopithecus albogularis) were often seen as they fed in the early hours of the day. Other species of monkey, such as the vervet (Chlorocebus aethiops) and blue monkey (Cercopithecus mitis adolfi), are also present but seemed less common according to village Mwanihani resident knowledge.
The Zanzibar red colobus is one of the most threatened primates in Africa and is classified as endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List. Once widespread along the main islands of the Zanzibar Archipelago (Unguja and Pemba), it now occupies only 5% of its historical range. On the more densely populated island of Unguja, which comprises 85% of the Zanzibar landmass, a few small and fragmented populations remain in areas that are under considerable pressure from human development. Probably fewer than 1,500 monkeys are left. The largest remaining population of about 1,000 animals survives in the protected Jozani-Chwaka Bay National Park and the small Zanzibar government conservation areas in the south of Unguja. Several hundred others are spread across a dozen or so isolated, non-protected, and less viable sites. On Pemba, perhaps fewer than 100 monkeys survive in a couple of isolated sites and in some larger plantations. The species has become locally extinct on Pemba in at least three survey sites since the 1980s, including the smaller of the two islets. A few zoos and North American captive facilities have a total of approximately 85 red colobus. The Yerkes Primate Center in the U.S. has maintained a colony of Zanzibar red colobus as a resource for health-related studies on human and non-human primate diseases.
The Zanzibar servaline genet is a striking creature, looking rather like a large civet. Its abundant fur is a rich rusty-red with black spots and stripes. It has a rather long body with short legs, but it is a nimble climber, spending much of its time in the trees. It is primarily an insectivore, and less well studied than the red colobus. Little is known about its range and numbers, and it has never been systematically surveyed. It is one of a small family of African viverrids, related to the civets and the mongooses. The genet has had a hard time of late. At the turn of the century, Arab plantation owners introduced a relative of the genet, the small Indian mongoose, to control rats in their clove and coconut plantations. Unfortunately, in just a few decades, the rat population had been decimated, but at the same time so had the population of the genet and other indigenous carnivores. With its primary food source in decline, it was hunted for its fur and its habit of raiding chicken coops was not well received by the local human population. Today, much of the genet’s habitat is being cleared for agriculture, and what remains of the population is severely fragmented, the individuals in each area being at risk from inbreeding. Like the red colobus, it is listed as endangered.
Aders’ duiker were found in Zanzibar in 1892 and 1893. This duiker may have been farmed for food, but no major market was ever recorded. Little is known about its ecology on the island, but it may have been similar to that of the sunni duiker. The species was already considered rare by 1897. The lowland forest that duiker preferred is now mostly consumed by agriculture and human habitation, and this may have contributed to a decline in the species. The duiker was last sighted on Zanzibar in 1940 and is considered locally extinct. Its decline and extinction were likely due to heavy hunting and habitat destruction from human colonization. Aders’ duiker is a medium-sized antelope with a short, spiky coat of yellow to reddish-brown fur. The fur lightens towards the stomach. This duiker’s most distinctive feature is a line of long tufted hair running from the head down the back of the neck. The short, straight horns are found only on males. Its upper canine teeth are exaggerated and curve upward and backwards. This duiker is nocturnal and solitary and prefers high rainfall and an environment abundant in small shrubs and dense ground flora.
Unlike the three previous primates, the Zanzibar leopard has not been sighted in over 25 years and is uncertain whether it still exists. The Zanzibar leopard has suffered from habitat destruction and fragmentation, and it was hunted mercilessly in the past, both for raiding livestock and for the government bounty offered on its head, as late as the 1970s. Little is known about the behaviour or ecology of the Zanzibar leopard, and it is unclear whether it represents a distinct subspecies of leopard or whether it is identical to the African leopard (Panthera pardus pardus). Its colouring is golden-yellow with large, widely spaced rosettes. The Zanzibar leopard is a nocturnal animal and, in addition to its main diet of small antelope and monkeys, it has been said also to attack domestic stock. It makes its home in caves, crevices, and hollow trees. The Zanzibar leopard is included in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals and protected under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), but is considered possibly extinct.
The birdlife in Zanzibar is the most diverse of any of the islands in the East African country of Tanzania. This is due to its proximity to the mainland, which is a mere 40km away, and also because Zanzibar is the only large island in the area. There have been 200 species of birds recorded in Zanzibar, and 60 of these species are found on the coral rag forests of the Zanzibar archipelago and nowhere else in the world. The reason for this high incidence of endemism is, in part, that the island has remained isolated from the mainland for millions of years. This has allowed bird species to evolve in a confined area and in different directions from their relatives on the African mainland and other nearby islands. In many cases these changes have resulted in the development of a new species unique to the Zanzibar archipelago. Also, Zanzibar has historically been the site of several introductions of birds by various Arab and European traders and colonizers. These birds have often not fared well on the mainland and some have even become extinct there, but on Zanzibar they have found a suitable and stable habitat and have gone on to become naturalized as part of the island’s avifauna.
The Pemba Scops Owl (Otus pembaensis) was first described in 1997 by F. Sheldon and the author. On the 14th of May 1996, a juvenile owl was found in the stomach of a Long-eared Owl (Asio otus) caught by a local hunter at Mweera in the Ngezi forest. The colour of the down on the forest floor, particularly the extent to which it contrasts with leaf litter and the colour of dead and diseased leaves, are likely to be important factors influencing the distribution of this species and that of the Zanzibar Scops Owl, both of which are likely to be sensitive indicators of habitat disturbance. It makes a threat posture that is indistinguishable from that of the Zanzibar Scops Owl. This was a juvenile male captured at 1830 hrs at 130m altitude in tree 7 on Mt. Mitarini on the 14th of March 1998. (Note: Light levels can be measured using a conventional light meter and expressed in terms of moonlight)
The Red Bishop lives below 100m, foraging in rice fields and gardens. It is the only weaver species found on Zanzibar and has a unique breeding strategy. Red Bishops are polygynous, with a single male defending a territory of up to 1,000 square meters and having 3-6 females nesting within this area. When a receptive female enters his territory, the male performs a song and dance display, puffing out his feathers and holding an insect in his beak. If the female is impressed, she will allow the male to build her a nest out of grass stems and tendrils, lined with fine grass, tufts of the pannicles of grasses, or moulting feathers. She will then copulate with the male and lay 2-4 eggs in a woven domed nest with a side entrance. The male continues to perform to and copulate with other females that enter his territory and may make several more nests for them to lay their eggs in! This breeding system is obviously detrimental to one sex and age class, with many males unable to obtain a territory and start breeding, whilst those that do are very vulnerable to predation by nestling baby. Adult females are at much lower risk- they limit their foraging to small areas near the nests and the domed design provides some protection from snakes and other egg predators.
This species can be identified by its iconic scarlet red crest and glossy iridescent purple neck, as well as its green back, wings, and tail. Their primary diet consists of small fruits and insects. This species is known to show preference for indigenous and exotic fruit trees, as well as fruit gardens in the villages that surround the Udzungwa Mountain National Park. The Turaco is not under immediate threat; however, the ongoing positive conservation of the Udzungwa mountain range will be key to survival in the future for this canopy dweller, and its habitat use should be monitored to ensure overexploitation does not occur.
Fischer’s Turaco, Tauraco fischeri, is a very attractive presence in the Eastern Arc Range and the green, beautiful valleys of Uluguru and Udzungwa Mountains. The bird is known to occur in Kenya and Tanzania, and the Southern Highlands of Tanzania are considered to act as a geographical barrier between Tauraco fischeri and the Tauraco living in the Eastern Arc Mountains.
The Zanzibar white-eye is a small passerine bird belonging to the family Zosteropidae. The bird is about 10 cm long, with a short, straight and sharp bill. The adult Zanzibar white-eye is a distinctive, sexually monochromatic bird with creamy white underparts and bright green upperparts. The species has pinkish legs and both the bare skin around the eye and the eye ring are diagnostic. The eye ring is fleshy pink, and the skin around the eyes is light blue. Individuals breed dependent on their habitat. Birds living in the higher areas of the West Island and at similar heights on the Central Eastern Island are known to breed at both times of the year. The breeding time of the birds living at lower levels on the Central Eastern Island and the East Island is unknown, and more information on this group is needed. Birds engage in courtship feeding, and pairs may engage in mating throughout the year. However, activity at nest building and repair and onset of laying can occur at any time from 28 September to 6 March. The most successful breeding period seems to be during the long rainy season and the short rains.
Reptiles are an important part of the ecosystem. They fill a number of niches including predator and prey. Perhaps the most important role of reptiles in the ecosystem is the herbivorous one, in which reptiles control the distribution and abundance of plant species. In doing so, reptiles prevent habitat loss and degradation. Sea turtles are quite rare in East Africa these days with only a few nesting sites left. There are 3 species of sea turtle that visit Zanzibar, the green turtle; which is a resident breeder, the hawksbill turtle which is also a resident breeder, and the highly threatened, olive ridley turtle which is a vagrant of the other species. The green turtle is listed as endangered by Birdlife International and its numbers have decreased rapidly in the western Indian Ocean where it was once abundant. This sea turtle is the largest hard-shelled turtle averaging 110cm in carapace length and 135kg in mass. It is called a green turtle not for its colour, but because it has greenish fat. This is thought to be due to its herbivorous diet. The green turtle has been heavily exploited for its fat, meat, and eggs. It is currently protected in the Seychelles, Mauritius, and Agaléga and is on the protected species list in most range states. Sea turtles are a flagship species for marine conservation, if it is possible to preserve the marine environment with its many and varied dangers for sea turtles, then most if not all of the marine ecosystem will also be preserved.
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The Green Turtle (Chelonia mydas) is the largest of all the hard shell turtles. It is an endangered species. They can be found in seagrass beds, coral reefs, and algae, and are only known to nest in the Western Indian Ocean at only two sites on the East African coast, one of these sites being in Zanzibar. The nesting season is unclear but it is thought to be between August and February. They are known to nest during the day and are easily scared back to sea by people. Adults do not have many predators, but the eggs and the young of the green turtle have many. The turtles are often poached for their meat and eggs, which is a Zanzibari delicacy. Conservation programs are working to encourage locals that there are more benefits to the ecosystem by leaving these animals alive. The green turtles are also caught as bycatch in fishing nets and their habitat is often destroyed or disturbed by human coastal development. This is a big problem in Zanzibar as the human population is rapidly increasing and this is putting excessive pressure on the coastal environment. There are several reasons why the green turtle is so named. The first is simply that it is the only sea turtle that is a herbivore, adult greens are strictly vegetarian. This is reflected in their fat greenish colored body fat and their greenish/yellow body cartilage. They are also very apt swimmers and have been known to swim hundreds of miles to reach their particular nesting site. Once adult greens have been known to undertake vast trans-oceanic migrations as far from their resident areas as Ascension Island in the South Atlantic, to the waters off Norway!
With regard to Hawksbill turtle conservation, Zanzibar provides an interesting case. There is a current moratorium on all turtle fishing and at the same time, as has historically been the case in many villages, turtles are sometimes killed for food or in order to prevent them from damaging fishermen’s nets. In the past, turtles have been harvested for basketwork and tourist curios, and turtles are sometimes caged and kept as a tourist attraction. There are still many old shell specimens in private collections in Zanzibar. All these elements combined mean that overall, Hawksbill turtles have faced a significant historical threat on the islands and the species as a whole in the Western Indian Ocean is listed at a critically endangered level. Any remaining nesting activity by Hawksbill turtles in Zanzibar is so rare as to currently be unknown. However, significant numbers of Hawksbill turtles are known to nest at islands such as Misali and the small islets to the west of Pemba, and there is currently an exciting discovery and community-based project occurring at Tumbe to protect a nesting Hawksbill population in Northern Zanzibar. This project is run by the Tumbe village community and Sea Sense, and it is demonstrating that education and community stewardship can be a highly effective mechanism for the protection of marine turtles on Zanzibar’s beaches. At Tumbe, poaching of Hawksbill turtles has been reduced by 80%, and there is a noticeable wave of local support and pride for the Hawksbill project.
The Zanzibar tree gecko (Colopus angolensis) is the largest of the gecko species found in the Zanzibar archipelago. It feeds at night on insects, using the cover of darkness to come down from the trees, in which it spends most of its time clinging to the underside of large leaves. The gecko is well known by the Zanzibar population and in eastern Africa, where a number of myths surround it. It is often feared as it is believed to be poisonous. Due to its undisputed beauty, the gecko is often kept as a pet in Zanzibar households, with some being sold to tourists in the form of earrings cast in silver and gold. The demand for these trinkets has led to excessive, unsustainable harvesting of the gecko from the wild. The species is threatened primarily by habitat loss and over-collection. Coastal forest where the geckos are most often found has been reduced to fragments or completely cleared for agriculture and development. Although it is now illegal to export the gecko as a pet and a small percentage of the trinket sales are reinvested in conservation activities, the gecko remains one of the least protected species in Zanzibar and is in continued decline.
The Pemba Flying Fox is a huge bat that is unique to Pemba and is also classified as critically endangered. They are known locally as “pekpe” and are red/brown in colour with a short face and large eyes. These are frugivorous bats and their diet consists mainly of fruit, although they have been known to eat flowers and have occasionally been observed to chew leaves. They are now restricted to feeding in a few small, coastal forests, these feeding areas are vital for the future survival of this species. This is because, unlike many other bat species, Pemba Flying Foxes are unable to use their wings to help them move around on the ground. This means that they are forced to fly directly from their roosting site to their feeding area and back again. It is a short and clumsy flight and to look at a Pemba Flying Fox flying overhead it is difficult to believe that it is a member of the same family of mammals as the aerobatic microchiroptera! Sugar cane plantations have been planted in the vicinity of the remaining forests and the bats are attracted to the sweet sap that seeps from cut sugar cane. It is known that this has led to many Pemba Flying Foxes coming to a sticky end. They become caught in the sap and are killed by the plantation workers, to protect a cash crop from an animal that is seen as a pest, this can lead to farmer-bat conflicts which are very difficult to resolve. The hunting of Pemba Flying Foxes for food is also a major threat to the survival of this species. Conservation measures are in place at four sites across Pemba to monitor and protect this endangered species.
Zanzibar is home to a diverse array of marine animals, and nowhere is this more evident than in its rich coral reefs. The Indian Ocean’s coral reefs are suffering from large-scale degradation due to coastal development, pollution, and climate change. Zanzibar’s reefs, however, are among the healthiest in the world. With over 200 coral species, they support a staggering diversity of fish and marine invertebrates. Several different types of reef exist around the islands, but the most fascinating is undoubtedly the deep slope at Mnemba Island (a tropical heaven for scuba divers) and the rare ancient Stone Corals and large Red Algae at Tumbatu Island. Coral is formed by tiny animals called polyps, which live in colonies and extract calcium carbonate from seawater to construct their skeletons. If the polyps are stressed by changes in temperature, light, or nutrients, they expel the tiny photosynthetic algae that live in their tissues and supply them with food. Without the algae, the coral loses its bright colors and, gradually, dies to leave a ghostly white skeleton. This process is known as coral bleaching. The largest fish in the world, whale sharks (Rhincodon typus), are seen around Zanzibar during the austral summer. These gentle giants feed on plankton and are known to aggregate in coastal areas to feed and possibly to breed. Very little is known about their biology, and they have never been observed breeding or giving birth. Investigations are currently being made to discover if Zanzibar is a birthing ground because the young can be very sensitive to changes in their environment. Whale sharks are listed as vulnerable to extinction by the World Conservation Union.
Here, descriptions of the coral reef environments of Tanzania are summarized concisely from a number of authored sources. Descriptions from two areas in Zanzibar are quite detailed, offering good hypotheses to be tested in subsequent monitoring and research programs. Unfortunately, no detailed descriptions are available from Mafia Island, Pemba Island, or from Tanga. This is a gap in the present state of knowledge. Coral reef environments are complicated and floristically diverse. Abrupt changes in benthic biota occur over relatively short distances. They are also among the most productive ecosystems in the world and thus provide habitats for huge numbers of fishes and many other taxa. For years, the most convenient way to study and document the floristic and structural composition of coral reef communities was by using standard underwater visual census techniques employing SCUBA divers.
They are the largest types of fish in the sea. Whale sharks are enormously fascinating creatures, with diets only consisting of plankton and small fish. These gentle giants are known to inhabit areas worldwide and during earlier times studies have shown there being more in the waters of Zanzibar. There are two main locations in Zanzibar Island where whale sharks have been spotted. In the south of Zanzibar Island, around the area of Kizimkazi, is where records dating 100 years back suggest that whale sharks were found in the coastal waters. The movement patterns of the gentle giants are largely unknown as they have only been documented quite recently. Whale sharks were mainly being targeted by fishermen for their liver oil, meat, and fins. This has since then led this species to be classified as vulnerable by the IUCN Red List. Whale shark tours are now beginning in Zanzibar, offering the chance to swim with and study the whale sharks. This has raised concerns from both local villagers, NGOs, and tourist operators on the possible negative impacts that such tours may bring. Understanding the whale sharks can also help in protecting their habitats in coastal areas and the high seas of Zanzibar, thus initiatives to involve local communities and establish a national whale shark research and monitoring program in Zanzibar are underway.
Spinner dolphins are listed as ‘near threatened’ and humpback dolphins listed as ‘vulnerable’ on the IUCN red list. Coastal and offshore fisheries have caused widespread depletion in dolphin populations due to the significant number of dolphins that are taken as by-catch in tuna and shark fishing industries, although fishermen have not directly targeted both species around Zanzibar. In order to assess the abundance and distribution of these dolphin populations, it is important to continue with research and monitoring programs. This can be integrated with the development of management plans for the conservation of dolphins around Zanzibar, and involve the local communities in raising awareness of the importance of dolphin conservation and to limit human impacts on dolphin populations.
Two species are found around Zanzibar – the Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphin and the humpback dolphin. Humpback dolphins are shy, retiring animals, and are sometimes difficult to distinguish from the Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphins, which are quite common in the Zanzibar archipelago. Humpback dolphins have longer beaks, a small hump in front of their dorsal fin, and an unusual dorsal fin which is more triangular than that of other dolphins. It is likely that both species are distributed around the Zanzibar island group, however, there is currently limited information on their distribution and abundance.
Spinner dolphins are a small and delicate species of dolphins with three very distinctive phases of activity. They are most often found in Zanzibar in large, mixed-species schools in the deeper waters at the channels between the small islands to the west of Zanzibar.
Humpback whales are migratory and have been spotted in the Menai Bay Conservation Area between September and April. They are known to feed on the small fish fry found in the area. Humpback whales are a protected species in Tanzania and it is hoped that the islands of Zanzibar will provide a safe haven for the calving of this species. If humpback whale sightings become a common occurrence in Zanzibar, this may lead to more specific whale watching tours being established. This would be a sustainable form of revenue generation and would help in protecting these animals by demonstrating their value in live ecotourism. To learn more about the humpback whales found in Zanzibar, listen to the interview headed “Sighting of a Humpback Whale” conducted by G.A. Schmelz and J. Mwambao with the fisherman who sighted this animal in 2003. This interview can be found in “The state of the marine environment in Tanzania” produced by WIOMSA.
When considering the whole of the Lepidoptera order, the Zanzibar butterfly occupies a very limited range of habitats. These habitats are the coastal evergreen and the submontane and montane evergreen. The former habitat is shared with only 13% of other butterflies and the latter habitat is shared with a mere 6%. The reason for the lack of occupation in other habitats is that the Zanzibar butterfly is a “forest-adapted insect” and has only 1 morphologically-related counterpart in other forest habitats. An interesting point is that compared to Zanzibar in the past, the butterfly has been seen to extend its range into cultivated field areas. This may suggest that insect populations are being driven out from their natural habitats. A study in Kenya showed that cultivation in forests has proven to be the collapse of forest insect populations (Newbold et al. 2005).
6.1. Zanzibar Butterfly Butterflies are described as insects and they belong to a large group called the Lepidoptera. This group is made up of about 120,000 known species in the world. Although it is not such a significant number, they are the 10th largest group of animals. The population size within each species ranges in many orders of magnitude. The Zanzibar butterfly can be placed in the family Satyridae; it is only found in East Africa. Studies carried out at the Fukuchani Forest compared with other insect populations have shown us some interesting facts.
This section will discuss three different insects which all have distinct characteristics. The information in this section has been obtained from an article called “Ecology of the Zanzibar invertebrates” by N.J. Bennett. According to the article, there are 140 species of butterfly in Zanzibar. This is relatively low compared with the mainland of East Africa. This could be due to the high humidity of the tropical forest.
Adult males have dark velvety blue upperparts and bright blue bands across the forewings, tails, and hindwings. Females are extremely polymorphic. Both sexes have a dark upperside with a shimmering blue suffusion. The forewing has an outwardly oblique and slightly curved, broad, rich chrome yellow-white or rarely pale whitish yellow band, the width of which is very variable, enclosing large, irregular, dark spots. The hindwing has two similar but more regular bands and lastly a blue submarginal line, often expanded into a spot at vein ends. Some females have the yellow areas replaced by white, others are similar to the males in the shape and extent of the yellow areas but often they are less intense in color and lacking in the spreading to the costal and inner margins. An extremely small proportion of females are predominantly brown. The underside is grey-brown, sometimes with a violet tinge, and a rather simple, darker pattern than on the upperside. The larvae feed on a number of palm species including yellow palm, butterfly palm, and spineless lantern. The larvae live in a communal silk web. This species is common and is very variable in form and color. It is found in many habitat types at altitudes below about 600m. A common and widespread species. This family was reclassified by Vane-Wright et al. (2002) to include the former tribes of the subfamily Nymphalinae.
This is a small group of insects that are recognized by the often striking iridescent colors of their exoskeleton. There are around 15,000 different species of jewel beetles, with a vast distribution and many sub-families. They can vary in size and shape, but are typically rounded or elongate, and have relatively large, prominent eyes. Generally when an animal is poisonous it advertises the fact with bright warning colors. However, this is not the case with jewel beetles. Although they are not poisonous, their colors serve as camouflage, helping them to blend in with the leaves and flowers of their plant-eating larval stages. Jewel beetles may be found in dead wood, living in the cambium and boring through the sapwood, or in foliage, depending on the family. Adults of many species are flower visitors. Most do not be fooled by their often small size and unassuming tendencies. Despite the sophisticated nature of living in the depths of wood, or sifting through foliage, jewel beetles are impressive fliers, some having been known to migrate up to 500 miles.
During recent years, the number of Zanzibar Stick Insects has been dwindling. This is due to their habitat being destroyed. Zanzibar stick insects live in high altitude areas, usually above 300m. These areas have been invaded by the indigenous population and cleared to provide land for agriculture. The stick insects cannot move to higher ground because the areas above 300m have spice plantations, which are unsuitable for the stick insects. Only a few appropriate areas are protected, and it is in these that stick insect numbers are stable. Measures have been taken to save the Zanzibar Stick Insect. It is now illegal to capture them and keep them as pets. There are three current captive breeding populations in Sweden and the UK. These are kept as an insurance against extinction. The stick insects kept are descended from a legal export in the 1980s. As we know that habitat destruction is the main cause of their reduction, their future releases will be into suitable protected areas in Zanzibar and Kenya. With any luck, this fascinating species of insect can be saved from extinction.
The Zanzibar Stick Insect is quite large at 15cm. It resembles a twig, which is not unusual for a stick insect. The male has fully developed wings, which it uses to fly to higher ground. The female, however, can only glide short distances. Stick insects have a specific mating procedure. The male will jump onto the female’s back and remain stationary before moving to fertilization. Zanzibar Stick Insects are herbivorous and eat the leaves of the Privet plant. They are also pests of cultivated roses. Their distribution is southern Kenya, Tanzania, and Zanzibar. Stick insects get their name from their resemblance to a stick. This one was photographed at Kidike Root (10-11-04) on the KIUD beach monitoring transect.
Projects to establish two new national parks have been initiated, namely the Kiwengwa – Pongwe Forest Reserve National Park, to minimize further loss and degradation of coastal forest and mangroves, and the Dodo and Matemwe Area National Park, which is located in an area with a high human population, to resolve current and future land-use conflicts so as to provide long-term protection to a site of great biological value. The Park at Kiwenga – Pongwe with an area of 50 km2, is a result of the expansion of the Kiwengwa – Pongwe Forest Reserve, and is under the management of Zanzibar Forestry and Beekeeping Division (FBD). This park was officially opened in September 2001 using funds from the Government of Italy and Zanzibar through an innovative debt-swap agreement. The Dodo and Matemwe Area National Park is being promoted by the Department of Commercial Crops, Fruits and Forestry (DCCFF) in partnership with local NGOs and the communities in the area. The first steps have been sensitization meetings and village delineation activity to demarcate park boundaries. This is intended to prevent encroachment into the park area by outsiders from other areas in search of land for cultivation. An official agreement to set aside the area as a national park for a period of 99 years has been signed between the DCCFF and the respective shehas of the two villages.
There are two national parks in Zanzibar – one on each of the main islands. 1. Jozani Forest is the largest area dedicated to conservation and has a small number of duikers, suni antelope, and bushpigs. But the main feature is the red colobus monkey (Piliocolobus kirkii). This is a very attractive species of monkey and is only found in Zanzibar. It was declared ‘officially’ extinct in 2002, though a small, scattered, and highly inbred population was later discovered in the south of the Jozani Forest, and the species is still on the brink of extinction. The forests are also home to the Zanzibar Sykes’ monkey (Cercopithecus mitis albogularis) and a larger and better population of these monkeys is found in the Kiwengwa/Pongwe area. 2. The other national park is the smaller Kiwengwa/Pongwe Forest Conservation Area which holds duikers, suni, and Zanzibar Sykes monkey. This forest is essentially the southern remains of a once vast and continuous swathe of forest that stretched from Kiwengwa in the NE to Pongwe in the Centre. Now it is a very fragmented patchwork of forest, intensively cultivated areas, and a small number of settlements and is under serious threat from illegal tree felling and poaching. There is an urgent need to try and secure the future of what remains by making the entire area a conservation area under Zanzibar’s Department of Commercial Crops, Fruits, and Forestry.
Shear mentions that 13 of Zanzibar’s 21 species of bats are of conservation concern. One bat, Pteropus rufus, is currently on the IUCN red list as an endangered species. A further five species, including Pteropus aldabrensis, are on the verge of being listed as such. Most Pteropus species are hunted on Pemba as they are considered a delicacy, and hunting levels over the past decade are considered to have reduced population numbers dramatically. This is a pattern throughout the world where bats are seen to be easy targets for bushmeat hunters. They are live trapped in fruiting trees or shot with homemade guns. They are under severe threat from the uncontrolled exploitation of their roost sites and food resources. Forest destruction has resulted in many of the roost sites, and flying foxes are often considered as pests by fruit or flower growers. All flying fox species feed exclusively on fruit or nectar, and if their food source is not too dispersed, they can localize and number in great quantities at specific sites. On Pemba, P. aldabrensis/amiraulti coalesce at chewing-stick farms (a type of tooth cleaning stick common in East Africa) and cause considerable damage to the crop. An understanding by local people that the species’ requirements can be accommodated with minimal damage to the crops is needed. This is possible through certain crop management strategies. Research on flying foxes in Zanzibar aims to better understand these strategies and educate local farmers on the moderately simple changes they can make to benefit bats and their own farming. The hope is that with local participation, more species may be saved from the brink of local extinction.
The initiative has recently completed an assessment of the current state of the industry using a sustainable tourism monitoring tool, designed to pinpoint the strengths and weaknesses of tourism in Zanzibar. From this, it was agreed that the best starting point would be to form a Zanzibar Tourism Policy. This will state the vision for the industry, along with goals and objectives to achieve the vision. The policy will act as a reference point for all tourism stakeholders in Zanzibar, helping to coordinate their efforts and avoid working at cross-purposes. An action plan will be formed to achieve the objectives set out in the policy. A consultative approach will be employed to ensure that all major groups have a voice in the planning and decision making. Finally, a system will be formed to monitor and review the progress of the initiative. This entire process is anticipated to take four years.
Sustainable tourism involves taking into account the needs of the environment and local communities in the tourism industry. Concerned about the negative effects of the rapid expansion of this industry in developing countries, the Zanzibar government, with the help of some NGOs, has established a sustainable tourism initiative. The basic objective of the sustainable tourism initiative is to attempt to make a positive impact on the natural environment, the local communities, and the local economy associated with tourism. It is widely considered that it is best to concentrate on improving the quality of tourism, rather than the quantity. This can be done through a variety of techniques, such as promoting Zanzibar as a high-value destination, improving regulations and standards within the industry, and attempting to “right-size” the industry (increasing the benefits, reducing the costs).
